Mobilised and Militarised Childhood: A Sample Schedule and Account of a 1960s-born Chinese Pupil in Two Days

Gastbeitrag von Dr. Sanjiao Tang

Dieser Beitrag erschien zuerst auf dem Blog der Staatsbibliothek.

Driven by the international tensions in the Cold War context, war preparation elements heavily and continuously featured Chinese people’s lives throughout the Maoist era (1949–1976). Despite the great famine around the late 1950s, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) decided to include China’s entire population in the armed forces (quanmin jiebing 全民皆兵). In 1962, despite the tens of millions of deaths caused by the famine, the country celebrated that its militias had maintained a scale of over two hundred million people. It was not yet the final goal of the campaign of mass mobilisation and militarisation. As depicted in a well-known slogan, all the seven hundred million Chinese people were to become soldiers (qiyi renmin qiyi bing  七亿人民七亿兵). Although this was rhetorically exaggerated, it is no exaggeration to say that Chinese people were generally involved in the national war-preparing activities that lasted until the end of the Maoist era, and whose relevant experiences should not be overlooked when reviewing personal and collective lives in Maoist China. It is also the topic that I aim to explore.

Before arriving in Berlin, benefiting from a notable number of sources I had collected, my research mainly concentrated on those joining the militias who were normally aged between 16 and 35 and undoubtedly formed the core force of Maoist-era mass mobilisation and militarisation. As for those either too young or too old to obtain membership of the militias in the Maoist era, how were their lives associated with the mass campaign? For example, what were the Chinese children’s stories like between the 1960s and 1970s, being engaged in the war preparation? Remember the active roles that schoolchildren in elementary and junior middle schools had played in China’s numerous mass movements since 1949, like their organisational participation in the movement of backyard furnaces during the Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s. It was not surprising that the children from the early 1960s took another active part in the national campaign of mobilisation and militarisation, as the youngest generation involved in the war-preparation activities. However, their stories scarcely received much attention in the officials’ paperwork and documentation. Hardly could these pupils carefully record their experiences either. Overlooking the mobilised and militarised childhood of the generations who are driving the country at present leads to a notable gap in understanding both Maoist and today’s China.

Thanks to the Grant Program of the Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, I had the opportunity to conduct my research at Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin and to access valuable contemporary publications regarding the Chinese school pupils being mobilised and militarised between the 1960s and 1970s. Whether they are in the form of picture-story books or children’s fiction, whether they have been issued periodically or published separately, they are all in scouts-like style. The Chinese word xiao bing (小兵), meaning ‘young soldiers’ in English, frequently appeared in their titles. Taking up a big proportion of them are monthlies or semi-monthlies produced in various provinces during the Cultural Revolution period (1966–1976) that are aiming at children in primary schools, uniformly with the name of Hong Xiao Bing 红小兵 (see illustration above). When Hong Xiao Bing is mentioned, people will normally think about Hong Wei Bing (红卫兵 Red Guards), who were the rebels in China during the first few years of the Cultural Revolution. Younger than those becoming Hong Wei Bing, Hong Xiao Bing were the youngest participants of the Cultural Revolution. In December 1967, the authorities endorsed the Hong Xiao Bing organisations in primary schools, aiming to recruit those between 6 and 12 years old. While the tide of the Cultural Revolution ended in the late 1960s, that was also the time when the Hong Xiao Bing organisations truly functioned in China’s elementary schools. Until the late 1970s, despite the decline of the Cultural Revolution, the lasting campaign of mass mobilisation and militarisation instead characterized the Hong Xiao Bing organisations. As a result, the Chinese generations starting their primary schooling between 1966 and 1976 had common and distinct experiences of their preparation to defend Maoist China as Hong Xiao Bing.

Admittedly, all these items were propaganda products of the CCP. For the curious children, when most cultural products and literary works were banned during the Cultural Revolution, these publications were also among the very scarce materials they could read every day. What was propagated in these books provided them with limited and precious information regarding what to learn, what to play, what to say, what to sing, what to know, and what to dream about.

Therefore, based on the materials in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, I tried to draw up a sample schedule and account of a Chinese pupil of two days during the first half of the 1970s, when the order of schooling had been basically recovered from the chaos caused by the Cultural Revolution. – Imagine that you started your primary education in the early 1970s: You will find that your school lives were driven by ubiquitous elements of mobilisation and militarisation, which aimed to physically and mentally train you according to the need of war preparation.

  • Day One, 9:00–11:00 am

This session is based on:
Chen Guangrong 陈光荣 (text), Mei Meng 梅萌 (images), “Jianpuzhai xiaoyingxiong: Dada” (柬埔寨小英雄: 达达) (‘Young Hero in Cambodia: Dada’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Jiangsu Province) 53, no. 8 (1975): no page number available

As the most important thing that all the children need to do in school, the session of Studies in Politics (Zhengzhi xuexi政治学习) takes place at least three times per week. This morning, the Studies in Politics in your class focuses on mobilising the children to play an active role in national defence. Your teacher’s long speech based on the upper-level documents is boring to the class. What draws your attention is the story shared by your teacher. It is about a child fighting hero in Cambodia. Your teacher retells the story based on a Hong Xiao Bing magazine. The Cambodian child learned and mastered the skill of driving a tank in just a few days, by which he contributed significantly to defend the communist regime in Cambodia, Khmer Rouge (Hongse Gaomian红色高棉). At that time, none of you really knows the regime of the Khmer Rouge, which killed millions of people in Cambodia. Yet, the ignorance does not prevent you from admiring the child fighting hero. To defend the Chinese communist regime, now you understand that you need to improve yourselves and learn from the child fighting models of the Khmer Rouge. The sessions of Studies in Politics are also one of the very limited ways for you and your classmates to obtain information regarding the outside world, although what you hear from the teacher is usually partial, fake, and misleading.

  • Day One, 1:00–2:30 pm

This session is based on:
Lu Xiaoping 陆小萍, “Wo tiaoguo le shanyang” (我跳过了山羊) (‘I vaulted the horse’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Guangdong Province) no. 1 (January 1974): 34–35

The first session after lunch is PE class. Today, the task is to practice tiao shanyang (跳山羊 horse-vaulting), which is a common requirement in military training. You have learned the basic skills in previous classes. But you still lack confidence in practice. In order to encourage you, the PE teacher uses the example of battlefields. According to your teacher’s analogy, it is just like how the soldiers stride over barriers in warfare. So, to be better prepared for the coming war, you must take the challenge of tiao shanyang and achieve the goal. Being effectively encouraged, you successfully finish the task when imagining that you are really in a battle fighting against enemies.

  • Day One, 3:00–4:00 pm

This session is based on:
Cui Yaofa 崔耀法, “Wa dilei” (挖地雷) (‘Dig up land mines’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Guangdong Province) no. 8 (August 1974): 4, and “Yiqie xingdong ting zhihui” (一切行动听指挥) (‘All actions under command’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Jiangsu Province) 47, no. 2 (1975): no page number available

After the PE class, there is a one‑hour period for collective activities. Aiming to reinforce the cohesion and teamwork of the pupils, teachers organise a series of interesting games in group form, which are always welcome by the children. This time, two new games are recommended. The first one is Wa dilei (挖地雷 Dig up land mines). As instructed by your teacher, the pupils, including you, sit in a circle. Two bricks are put inside as landmines. Each time, two children, with their eyes covered, try to find the landmines with their hands. When it is your turn, you move your hands slowly and cautiously, as if you were really in a minefield. When you finally dig up a land mine, all your classmates applaude for you, just like a cohesive team fighting together in a war.

The second game is even more militaristic. The name of the game is Yiqie xingdong ting zhihui (一切行动听指挥 All actions under command). It is quite a large-scale collective game, in which a whole school class can participate. Every child holds a wooden gun and stands in a line. Every line of children is regarded as a military squad. Once your teacher issues the order of zhunbei zhandou (准备战斗 prepare for fighting), each line moves according to the whistling. There are different kinds of whistling sounds with different meanings, like one long, two short, or one long and one short. They signify taking a step forward, taking a step back, about‑face, and some other actions. All the children are expected to take actions correctly, timely, and precisely in line with the orders. Due to nervousness, you make a mistake when moving. You feel guilty and decide to take more exercise. Only in this way you can make fewer mistakes in real wars, you believe. Otherwise, your comrades-in-arms would be endangered.

  • Day One, 6:00–7:00 pm

This session is based on:
Zhang Chi 张翅, “Tebie renwu” (特别任务) (‘Special Task’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Guangdong Province) no. 8 (August 1974): 14–15

After school, the hong xiao bing in your class, including you, receive a special task (teshu renwu特殊任务). It is to protect the crops in collective fields. Despite your young age, you are expected to finish the task together with the militia members in your village. Not only is the name of the task military-like, you are also requested to behave as if engaging in a fully militarised assignment in warfare. Based on the militia cadres’ instruction, what you specifically need to do is to go around on patrol, keeping vigilant at all times about any potential destruction from class enemies (jieji diren阶级敌人).

  • Day Two, 9:00–10:30 am

This session is based on:
“Fanxiu qianxian de Hong Xiao Bing – Zhenbaodao diqu Hong Xiao Bing de gushi” (反修前线的红小兵 – 珍宝岛地区红小兵的故事) (‘The Hong Xiao Bing on the frontier of anti-revisionism – the stories of Hong Xiao Bing in Zhenbaodao region’), in: Women shi Maozhuxi de Hong Xiao Bing (我们是毛主席的红小兵) (‘We are the Hong Xiao Bing of Chairman Mao’), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1970: 1–6, and “Jizhi de Xiaowulan” (机智的小乌兰) (‘The smart Xiaowulan’), Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Jiangsu Province) 50, no. 5 (1975): no page number available

In the Chinese class this morning, your teacher introduces extra reading materials, two stories from Hong Xiao Bing magazines. Based on close reading and comprehension, you should answer questions related to the keynotes of the stories.

The first story is about the hong xiao bing who joined the fighting with the Soviet Union on China’s northeast frontier, Zhenbao Island, in 1969. It is certainly a fiction, as it would be an extremely crazy thing to let children participate in a conflict between regular armies where tanks and armoured cars were used. Nevertheless, many pupils in your class are deeply moved and stimulated by the fictional story, swearing that they would defend China as heroically as the peers described here.

As for the second reading material, it is a picture story set on the grassland in Inner Mongolia. The hong xiao bing there are also active in war preparation and national defence. As a significant result of their efforts, a spy is discovered and arrested by the Mongolian hong xiao bing. After you have enjoyed the thrilling story, your teacher repeatedly highlights the importance of staying alert to any potential spy that you might meet in your daily lives.

  • Day Two, 1:00–2:00 pm

This session is based on:
Hong Xiao Bing yue zhan yue jianqiang: ertong gequ huoye gequ (红小兵越战越坚强: 儿童歌曲 活页歌曲) (‘The more fighting, Hong Xiao Bing are stronger: loose-leaf of children’s songs’) (3), Beijing: Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1974

After lunch, your first session is a music class. This is your favourite session across the curriculum, as you like singing. Many of the songs that you learn in the class are inspired by military-related themes. Even though some songs do not present real warfare directly, they still strongly encourage you to fight (zhandou 战斗), no matter if you have been mobilised to attend meetings of criticism (pidouhui 批斗会), criticise Lin Biao and Confucius (Pilin pikong 批林批孔), or prepare to go to the countryside (Shangshan xiaxiang 上山下乡). In the mass mobilisation and militarisation context, such analogies were not weird but produced harmonious melodies. Whenever singing these songs loudly with your classmates, you feel agitated and become eager to join the fighting.

  • Day Two, 2:30–5:30 pm

This session is based on:
“Jixun qianjin” (继续前进) (‘Continue advancing’), in: Women shi Maozhuxi de Hong Xiao Bing (我们是毛主席的红小兵) (‘We are the Hong Xiao Bing of Chairman Mao’), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1970: 114–117

For your classmates and you, the music class is yet the most attractive part of this afternoon. After that, you would go hiking, as one of the collective activities that enjoy lasting popularity among all the pupils in your school. Instead of taking a relaxing leisure activity, however, according to the instructions issued by your teacher who leads the hiking team, it is not an ordinary hiking experience but a fighting task with the aim to occupy the hill from the enemies. But who are the enemies? Based on the instructions, the U.S. and the Soviet Union are regarded as the enemies that the children need to fight. Resulting from the real war-like mobilisation, the whole way of climbing up the top of the hill is filled with your yell of kill, kill, and kill (hanshasheng zhentian喊杀声震天). Finally, in your imagination, you successfully defeat the U.S. and Soviet Union enemies and “occupy” the top of the hill as expected. Even so, that is not the end of the “fighting” task. As instructed by your teacher, the goal of defeating the enemies has not been fully achieved yet. Next week, your class will participate in another hiking activity under the title of jixu qianjin (继续前进 continue advancing).

  • Day Two, 6:30–8:00 pm

This session is based on:
“Dixiashi de zhandou” (地下室的战斗) (‘The fighting in the basement’) and “Da huoba” (打活靶) (‘Alive target practice’), in: Women shi Maozhuxi de Hong Xiao Bing (我们是毛主席的红小兵) (‘We are the Hong Xiao Bing of Chairman Mao’), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1970: 133–137 & 14–21

Finishing the “fighting” on the hill, it is not yet time to go back home. This week, your class is responsible for the school’s propaganda task. After the lessons, you need to produce big character papers (dazibao 大字报) and slogans, in addition to completing other relevant work for propaganda. All you are going to do is described as fighting tasks (zhandou renwu 战斗任务). When the topic of the big character paper is to criticise certain people, it is called daba (打靶 target practice), as serious as the situation in warfare. Sometimes, you even have the chance to help organise in-person meetings to criticise those who are viewed as anti-revolutionary in your school. In that case, it is called da huoba (打活靶 alive target practice). You and all your classmates yearn for such opportunities, which are no less exciting than getting a chance to fight against enemies in a real war.

 

As shown in this sample schedule and account of only two days, it is already safe to conclude that although just between 6 and 12 years old, Chinese children were shaped by war-preparing elements during their school lives in various aspects, including the knowledge they learned, the skills they acquired, their reading preferences, their habit of speaking, and their mode of thinking. If the Maoist era had not abruptly ended after a few years and the mass mobilisation and militarisation had continued, these children in their adolescence and early adulthood would surely have become the main force of war preparation in Communist China. The unexpected end of the Maoist era suddenly stopped them on the way to achieve their goal. Hong Xiao Bing organisations were dissolved nationally in 1978. However, the influence of the mobilised and militarised childhood may not be so easily overcome.

Benefitting from the rich materials existing in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, only a small part of which is demonstrated in the article here, I plan to conduct more detailed research focusing on the experiences of Chinese children involved in China’s mass mobilisation and militarisation under Mao, in addition to the legacies that live beyond the Maoist era.

 

Links to the referred sources available at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Guangdong Province), no. 1 (January 1974). –
SBB-PK: Zsn 47135-1974,1

Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) (Issued by Guangdong Province), no. 8 (August 1974) . –
SBB-PK: Zsn 47135-1974,8

Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) 47 (Issued by Jiangsu Province), no. 2 (1975) . –
SBB-PK: Zsn 129438-47 (2,1975)

Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) 50 (Issued by Jiangsu Province), no. 5 (1975) . –
SBB-PK: Zsn 129438-50 (5,1975)

Hong Xiao Bing (红小兵) 53 (Issued by Jiangsu Province), no. 8 (1975) . –
SBB-PK: Zsn 129438-53 (8,1975)

Hong Xiao Bing yue zhan yue jianqiang: ertong gequ huoye gequ (红小兵越战越坚强: 儿童歌曲 活页歌曲) (The more fighting, Hong Xiao Bing are stronger: loose-leaf of children’s songs), Beijing: Renmin yinyue chubanshe, 1974. –
SBB-PK: 229838

Women shi Maozhuxi de Hong Xiao Bing (我们是毛主席的红小兵) (We are the Hong Xiao Bing of Chairman Mao), Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 1970. –
SBB-PK: 220150

 

Herr Dr. Sanjiao Tang war im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz im Jahr 2024 als Stipendiat an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Forschungsprojekt: „An Exploration of China’s Campaign of Mass Mobilization and Militarization during the Mao Era: Based on the Valuable Sources at the Berlin State Library“

CrossAsia Talks: Lukáš Kubík 05.05.2025

(See English below)

Nach seinem Aufenthalt im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz hält Herr Lukáš Kubík (Karls-Universität, Prag) am 05.05.2025 ab 18 Uhr (Berliner Zeit) einen Onlinevortrag mit dem Thema (Un)official Korean Sources on late Koryŏ in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin’s East Asian Collection“. In seinem Vortrag wird er die Erkenntnisse aus seiner Forschung in den Berliner Beständen zu historischen Quellen aus der späten Koryŏ-Zeit genauer vorstellen.

In this lecture, I will talk about Korean historical sources held in the East Asian collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, focusing on both official and unofficial narratives from the late Koryŏ period onward. While official histories document key events, a range of unofficial sources offers unique, often personal perspectives that enrich our understanding of the past. Among these are educational texts used in private academies, or Sŏwŏn (書院), which compile Korean history from earlier works to create accessible overviews for students. Equally significant are the Munjip (文集), or collected writings of scholars, officials, and literati, which capture personal reflections and experiences rarely found in state-sanctioned records. These various sources reveal a complex and multifaceted picture of Korea’s historical and intellectual traditions, allowing us to explore widely accepted accounts and individual viewpoints.

Die Vortragssprache ist Englisch. Bei Fragen kontaktieren Sie uns unter: ostasienabt@sbb.spk-berlin.de.

Der Vortrag wird via Webex gestreamt und aufgezeichnet*. Sie können am Vortrag über Ihren Browser ohne Installation einer Software teilnehmen. Klicken Sie dazu unten auf „Zum Vortrag“, folgen dem Link „Über Browser teilnehmen“ und geben Ihren Namen ein.

Alle bislang angekündigten Vorträge finden Sie hier. Die weiteren Termine kündigen wir in unserem Blog und auf unserem X-Account an.

Weitere Informationen zum Vortragsthema finden Sie im Gastbeitrag von Herrn Kubík zu seinem Forschungsaufenthalt an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.

After his stay as part of the grant programme of the Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Mr Lukáš Kubík (Charles University, Prague) will give an online lecture on 5 May 2025 from 6 pm (Berlin time) on the topic ‘(Un)official Korean Sources on late Koryŏ in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin’s East Asian Collection’. In his lecture, he will present the findings from his research in the Berlin holdings on historical sources from the late Koryŏ period in more detail.

In this lecture, I will talk about Korean historical sources held in the East Asian collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, focusing on both official and unofficial narratives from the late Koryŏ period onward. While official histories document key events, a range of unofficial sources offers unique, often personal perspectives that enrich our understanding of the past. Among these are educational texts used in private academies, or Sŏwŏn (書院), which compile Korean history from earlier works to create accessible overviews for students. Equally significant are the Munjip (文集), or collected writings of scholars, officials, and literati, which capture personal reflections and experiences rarely found in state-sanctioned records. These various sources reveal a complex and multifaceted picture of Korea’s historical and intellectual traditions, allowing us to explore widely accepted accounts and individual viewpoints.

The lecture will be held in English. If you have any questions, please contact us: ostasienabt@sbb.spk-berlin.de.

The lecture will be streamed and recorded via Webex*. You can take part in the lecture using your browser without having to install a special software. Please click on the respective button “To the lecture” below, follow the link “join via browser” (“über Browser teilnehmen”), and enter your name.

You can find all previously announced lectures here. We will announce further dates in our blog and on X.

Further information on the topic of the lecture can be found in Mr Kubík’s guest article on his research stay at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.

 

*Mit Ihrer Teilnahme an der Veranstaltung räumen Sie der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz und ihren nachgeordneten Einrichtungen kostenlos alle Nutzungsrechte an den Bildern/Videos ein, die während der Veranstaltung von Ihnen angefertigt wurden. Dies schließt auch die kommerzielle Nutzung ein. Diese Einverständniserklärung gilt räumlich und zeitlich unbeschränkt und für die Nutzung in allen Medien, sowohl für analoge als auch für digitale Verwendungen. Sie umfasst auch die Bildbearbeitung sowie die Verwendung der Bilder für Montagen. / By participating, you grant the Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz and its subordinate institutions free of charge all rights of usage of pictures and videos taken of you during this lecture presentation. This declaration of consent is valid in terms of time and space without restrictions and for usage in all media, including analogue and digital usage. It includes image processing and the usage of photos in composite illustrations. German law will apply.

(Un)official Korean Sources on late Koryŏ in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin’s East Asian Collection

Gastbeitrag von Lukáš Kubík

Dieser Beitrag erschien zuerst auf dem Blog der Staatsbibliothek.

During the mid‑fourteenth century, East Asia experienced a period of profound changes, labelled by researchers as the Great Chinggisid Crisis, corresponding to Europe’s Crisis of the late Middle Ages. This era was marked by significant climate changes, leading to several disasters, including natural calamities, famines, and plagues. These events set the stage for major political upheavals. The once mighty Mongol Empire (1206–1368) began to decline, paving the way for the rise of the Red Turbans, a new power in China that led to the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). At the same time, Japan faced its own turmoil during the Northern and Southern Courts period, characterized by intense rivalry between the two imperial courts. In Korea, these turbulent times led to a significant shift in power as well. The Korean state of Koryŏ (918–1392) gave way to the Chosŏn dynasty (1392–1910) by the end of the fourteenth century. This transition was part of a broader pattern of dramatic changes that reshaped the entire region of East Asia.

Today’s historians of East Asia have access to a rich collection of written sources spanning an impressive geographic and cultural range. These materials, originating from China, Japan, Central Asia, Arabic-speaking countries and Europe, provide a multifaceted view of the region’s historical landscape. The main written Korean historical sources for this period are the Koryŏsa 高麗史 (History of Koryŏ) and Koryŏsa Chŏryŏ 高麗史節要 (The Essential History of Koryŏ), both in the category of dynastic histories and annalistic works. These are “official” historical documents written by court historians, which offer valuable information about historical periods. The political agenda and ideologies of the ruling dynasty influenced the compilation of official histories and veritable records. Most of the sources are retrospective. That means in the case of Korea, the Chosŏn dynasty historians composed the History of Koryŏ; in the case of the Yuan dynasty, it was the Ming dynasty historians that wrote the History of Yuan. Different historiographical biases have particular traditions in Chinese historiography (and in historiography in general per se); for instance, the emphasis on moral judgment and categorising rulers into „good“ or „bad“ based on Confucian principles can lead to a somewhat simplistic or one-dimensional portrayal of historical figures. Historians working on these works also might have faced censorship leading them to exclude sensitive or controversial information. Additionally, self-censorship might have prompted historians to avoid topics that could jeopardise their positions or provoke the ruling regime. Official histories are typically compiled after the end of a dynasty or reign of the ruler, meaning historians may have been influenced by knowledge of later events. This can lead to a tendency to view past events through the lens of present circumstances, possibly distorting the interpretation of historical events. Chinese and Korean official histories also exhibit a degree of ethnocentrism, portraying China as the centre of the world and other cultures or nations as peripheral or subordinate. This perspective can result in a biased understanding of regional or global historical dynamics.

Alongside the official histories, an array of unofficial written sources offers a broader perspective on historical events. These include, for example, educational materials developed for private academies, known as Sŏwŏn 書院 in Korean, which summarize Korean history by drawing from a variety of earlier texts. Additionally, collections of personal writings and records from scholars, officials, and literati, known as Munjip 文集, provide invaluable insights into individual viewpoints and experiences often missing in official narratives.

One significant repository for such materials in Europe has been the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin  – Preußischer Kulturbesitz. This collection, however, has been dispersed, with parts of it now residing in both Berlin and Kraków. Despite this geographical split, a collaborative effort known as the Berlin-Kraków Project has made these resources more accessible. Through this initiative, the East Asian sources housed in Poland are digitized, allowing scholars and the general public to explore these documents online.

In this blog post, I’ll explore several unofficial historical Korean sources in the East Asian collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. These sources shed light on the 14th century and beyond, offering rich alternatives to the more conventional dynastic records.

Cover of Tongguk t'ongkam chekang (The Basic Framework of the Comprehensive Mirror of the Eastern Kingdom). – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 23, image 1

Cover of Tongguk t’ongkam chekang (The Basic Framework of the Comprehensive Mirror of the Eastern Kingdom). – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 23, image 1

One of these alternative sources for Korean history is the Tongguk t’ongkam chekang 東國通鑑提綱 (The Basic Framework of the Comprehensive Mirror of the Eastern Kingdom), compiled by scholar Hong Yŏha (洪汝河, 1620–1674) in the 17th century. This work served as an instructional resource for private academies. It encompasses a historiography of Korean history, tracing from the Ancient Chosŏn to the Unified Silla (668–935) period. Notably, this text represents one of the earliest instances of exploring questions of legitimacy within ancient Korean history. It is generally known that it was published in 1786 with an introduction by An Chŏngbok (安鼎福 1712–1791). The book is printed using wooden type and consists of 13 volumes (卷) across 7 books (冊). It has been preserved and digitized at major South Korean archives, including the Kyujanggak and Jangseogak. Copies are also available at the Harvard-Yenching Library, Princeton, and Berkeley. In Europe, it is only found  at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Therefore, it is quite a rare document, making the digitized version a valuable resource for researchers interested in accessing the original text.

Tongguk t'ongkam chekang: Introduction by An Chŏngbok. – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 23, image 9

Tongguk t’ongkam chekang: Introduction by An Chŏngbok. – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 23, image 9

 

Another example is the Yŏsachekang 麗史提綱 (Annotated Outline of Koryŏ History), compiled by Yu Kye (兪棨, 1607–1664) in the 17th century.

Cover of the Yŏsachekang (Annotated Outline of Koryŏ History) . – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 18, image 1

Cover of the Yŏsachekang (Annotated Outline of Koryŏ History). – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 18, image 1

This work comprehensively covers the history of Koryŏ, spanning from the reign of King T’aejo of Koryŏ (太祖, 918–943) to the reign of King Ch’ang (昌王, r. 1388–1389). This manuscript represents a significant development in Chosŏn-period historiography influenced by Confucianism. The first edition was compiled in 1667, three years after Yu Kye’s death. In 1749, King Yŏngjo took issue with the record of King Kongyang (恭讓王, r.  389–1392) and had it reprinted; there are, therefore, two versions. Looking at the differences from the first edition, the expression ‚夷狄禽獸‘ in the preface written by Song Si-yŏl 宋時烈 (1607–1689), which King Yŏngjo pointed out, has been changed to ‚倫綱弗正‘, and other parts of the records of King Kongyang were deleted. The book is printed using wooden type and consists of 23 volumes (卷) across 23 books (冊). It has been preserved and digitized at major South Korean archives, including Kyujanggak and Jangseogak, but also in North Korea at the Grand People’s Study House (인민대학습당). Copies are available at Harvard’s Yenching Library, Princeton, Library of Congress, and Indiana University. In Europe, it is only at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.

Preface 序 of the Yŏsachekang (Annotated Outline of Koryŏ History) . – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 18, image 4

Preface 序 to the Yŏsachekang (Annotated Outline of Koryŏ History). – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 18, image 4

Another indispensable alternative source for exploring Korean history is the Munjip (文集), a compilation that gathers essays, poetry, and other writings by one or several individuals. In Korea, the scope of Munjip is broad, encompassing records, collected works, compilations, posthumous works, daily records, complete works, collected letters, comprehensive collections, and factual records. These collections serve not only to preserve individual legacies for posterity, but also as a rich repository of diverse personal experiences.

The material value of Munjip for historical research is profound. Each collection offers a unique lens through which to view the past, reflecting their authors‘ personal insights, cultural contexts, and intellectual climates. This personal dimension allows historians and scholars to access a range of narratives that might otherwise be lost in more formal historical accounts.

Front cover of the Collected Works of P'oŭn . – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 27, image 1

Front cover of the Collected Works of P’oŭn . – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 27, image 1

One noteworthy example of Munjip in the holdings of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is the P’oŭnjip 圃隱集 (Collected Works of P’oŭn). P’oŭn was the pen name of Chŏng Mong‑ju 鄭夢周 (1337–1392), a distinguished Confucian scholar and politician from the late Koryŏ dynasty. P’oŭn’s life and career were profoundly intertwined with the turbulent political shifts of his time, culminating in his assassination by Yi Pang-wŏn, the third king of the Chosŏn dynasty. This act was motivated by P’oŭn’s steadfast loyalty to the Koryŏ dynasty and his opposition to Yi Sŏng-gye, Yi Pang-wŏn’s father and the founder of the Chosŏn dynasty. Chŏng Mong‑ju held several key positions within the Koryŏ government, including Minister of Civil Appointments, Director of the Royal Academy, and Supervisor of the Office of Personnel. He was a significant figure during a time when factions within the Koryŏ court were deeply divided between the ones supporting the declining Yuan dynasty and supporters of the rising Ming dynasty. Chŏng emerged as a staunch advocate for pro-Ming policies among progressive scholars and demonstrated considerable diplomatic skills, serving as an envoy to both Ming China and Japan.

Portrait of Chŏng Mong-ju in the Collected works of P'oŭn . – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 27, image 4

Portrait of Chŏng Mong‑ju in the Collected works of P’oŭn. – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 27, image 4

The P’oŭnjip was first published in 1439. This collection represents a significant literary work that has accumulated various editions and supplements over the centuries. There are several editions of P’oŭnjip located in archives:

1. Old Edition (舊本), published in 1439: Initially published by his sons Jong Sŏng 宗誠 and Jong Bon 宗本. It was mentioned that Chŏng Mong‑ju’s works had been collected since 1409, indicating thirty years until the first edition’s publication.

2. Shingye Edition (新溪本), published in 1533: Updated by his descendant Se-shin 世臣 while serving as a county magistrate in Shingye, adding a chronological record to the original edition.

3. Kaesŏng Old Print Edition (開城舊刻本): Early in the reign of King Sŏnjo (宣祖 r. 1567–1608), this edition added three new poems to the original content. The exact year of publication remains unknown.

4. Scholar’s Library Edition (校書館本): Published in metal type during the early to mid-reign of King Sŏnjo.

5. Yŏngchŏn First Print Edition (永川初刻本), published in 1584: Compiled and revised under the commission of Yu Sŏng‑yong (柳成龍, 1542–1607). This edition was recompiled in 1607 by Yŏngchŏn magistrate Hwang Yŏ‑il (黃汝一, 1556–1622) and scholars from the Imgo Sŏwŏn 臨皐書院 after the original plates were destroyed during the Japanese invasions (Imjin War, 1592–1598).

6. Bonghwa Print Edition (奉化刻本), published in 1659, was carved by a descendant, Yu Sŏng (維城, ??) in Bonghwa. It has added sections on chronological discrepancies and ritual texts.

7. Yŏngchŏn Reprint Edition (永川再刻本), published in 1677: Reprinted in Yŏngchŏn with added corrections from the Bonghwa edition and extended records from various families, expanding the content from 4 to 9 volumes.

8. Kaesŏng Reprint Edition (開城再刻本), published in 1719: This edition was further expanded by a descendant, Ch‘an Hwi (纘輝, ??), who added three additional volumes of records to the four volumes of the Bonghwa edition. This extended content was eventually published in Kaesŏng in 1769.

9. Kaesŏng New Edition (開城新本), published in 1900: Compiled by descendant Hwan Ik (煥翼, ??) at the Sungyang Sŏwŏn 崧陽書院, primarily based on the Yŏngjo (英祖 r. 1735–1776) period edition, supplemented by materials from the Yŏngchŏn edition and additional records.

More information about the various editions is here in Korean.

The edition held by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin contains a preface written by Song Si‑yŏl. It is presumably the Bonghwa Print Edition or a later one.

Collected works of P'oŭn: A preface written by Song Si yŏl. Staatsbibliothek Berlin. – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 27, image 10

Collected works of P’oŭn: A preface written by Song Si‑yŏl. – SBB-PK:. Libri cor. 27, image 10

The Yaŭn sŏnsaeng ŏnhaeng sŭbyu 冶隱先生言行拾遺 (Anecdotes and the Words and Deeds of Master Yaŭn) housed in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is another exemplary Munjip that illuminates the scholarly and literary culture of the Chosŏn dynasty. This collection, dedicated to the works and legacy of Kil Chae 吉再 (1353–1419), known by his pen name Yaŭn 冶隱, compiles poetry and prose that span his life and recollections noted by later generations. Kil Chae’s life and works were first chronicled in 1573, originally under the title Yaŭn Sŏnsaeng Haengnok 冶隱先生行錄 (Chronicles of Master Yaŭn). Over time, this initial compilation underwent several revisions and augmentations. By 1615, his sixth‑generation descendants expanded the work to include various royal sacrificial texts and texts for veneration and rituals. They re-titled it to Yaŭn sŏnsaeng ŏnhaeng sŭbyu and released it as a three‑volume, one‑book edition with a postscript by Chang Hyŏn-Kwang (張顯光, 1554–1637). The 1858 edition represents further efforts by his descendants to honour Kil Chae’s legacy. This edition was proofread by Song Nae‑hee (宋來熙, 1791–1867) and includes a continuation collection that compiled new writings and poems by Kil Chae, alongside excerpts from various documents and poems in praise of him penned by later generations.

Preface of the Anecdotes and the Words and Deeds of Master Yaŭn. – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 26, image 20

Preface to the Anecdotes and the Words and Deeds of Master Yaŭn. – SBB-PK: Libri cor. 26, image 20

In addition to the Korean manuscripts I have presented, I recommend further exploration of the Library’s catalogue and CrossAsia database. Moreover, the East Asia Department has recently acquired the posthumous collection of the late Professor Hans-Jürgen Zaborowski (1948–2021), which contains approximately 500 pre-modern Korean manuscripts. These manuscripts are currently in the process of being catalogued. It will be intriguing to see what unique treasures the collection reveals. For more information on the Zaborowski collection, please contact the subject specialist for Korean Studies at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Jing Hu at Jing.Hu@sbb.spk-berlin.de.

Inside the stacks with the Zaborowski collection. – Photo: Lukáš Kubík

Inside the stacks with the Zaborowski collection. – Photo: Lukáš Kubík

With fellow koreanist Ms Hu Jing from the Korea section of the East Asia Department of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.. – Photo: Lukáš Kubík

With fellow koreanist Ms Hu Jing from the Korea section of the East Asia Department of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.. – Photo: Lukáš Kubík

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Further reading:

    • Glomb, Vladimír, Eun-Jeung Lee, and Martin Gehlmann, eds. Confucian Academies in East Asia. Science and Religion in East Asia, volume 3. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2020.
    • Kim, Jungwon. „Archives, Archival Practices, and the Writing of History in Premodern Korea: An Introduction.“ Journal of Korean Studies 24, no. 2 (2019): 191‑199. muse.jhu.edu/article/736501.
    • Reynolds, Graeme R. „Culling Archival Collections in the Koryŏ-Chosŏn Transition.“ Journal of Korean Studies 24, no. 2 (2019): 225‑253. muse.jhu.edu/article/736503.
    • WWoolf, D. R., Andrew Feldherr, and Grant Hardy, eds. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Volume 2. 400‑1400; Volume 3. 1400‑1800. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011‑2015.

 

Herr Lukáš Kubík, Institute of Asian Studies at the Charles University in Prague, war im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz im Jahr 2024 als Stipendiat an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Forschungsprojekt: „Maritime Confrontations with Japan in Korean Historical Sources“

Military Drugs and Medical Texts: The Berlin Chinese Medical Manuscripts and Patterns of Consumption in the Mid to Late Qing

Gastbeitrag von Forrest Cale McSweeney

Herr Forrest Cale McSweeney, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, war im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz im Jahr 2024 als Stipendiat an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Forschungsprojekt: „Military Drugs From Soldiers to Physicians“

Dieser Beitrag erschien zuerst auf dem Blog der Staatsbibliothek.

In the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), military medicine, and particularly military drugs, were an aspect of the income of soldiers. In a complex system of local procurement, the Qing government steered both simple ingredients and physicians themselves to the privileged Manchu warrior elite in the Eight Banners often stationed in the far West, and likewise to regular soldiers in the Green Standard Armies. After the 1780s this procurement process was governed by the War Expenditures Regulations junxuzeli 軍需則例 (the Qing created specialized regulations called zeli 則例 for a variety of administrative domains). However, apart from this, the Qing emperors dispatched chengyao 成藥, or pre-prepared formulas, directly to soldiers throughout the empire through the honorary conferral system which had been a regular feature of government in imperial governments since the Tang Period (618–907).

Such pre-prepared formulas were the products of China’s new and enormous bulk of pharmaceutical industry. By the 18th century these firms had begun to aggressively publish and market their drugs directly to consumers, particularly through the circulation of their catalogues (yaomu 藥目). The most successful pharmacy and the one closest to the Qing government was the Tongrentang 同仁堂. Of the 95 formulas confirmed to have been distributed to Qing soldiers from the 18th through the 19th century, 47 appeared on the Tongrentang’s catalogue. This amounted to a virtual subsidy for the metropolitan pharmaceutical industry in the Qing.

This cuts against our typical understanding of medicine in the Qing, which according to most scholars became far less attached to the state both materially and discursively throughout late imperial China from the mid-Ming (1368–1644). But was the state merely an indirect player in this new scene? Is it possible that the Qing state’s drug distribution efforts actually enhanced the profile of some drugs over others, even over that of the efforts of the pharmaceutical industry? Moreover, what can the Berlin Library’s Unschuld collection, the “Chinese Medical Manuscripts”, add to this discussion? These roughly thousand manuscripts contain a wide variety of individually copied medical texts primarily intended for private or use within a closed system of associates and circulated only incidentally. They range from copies of esteemed medical classics to large numbers of recipe collections reflecting the individual inclinations of physicians often operating beneath the level of mainstream medical literature.

It has long been a suspicion by scholars that in the late imperial period, the classical medical tradition operated more often than not as a legitimizing veneer over a much more obscure level of practical discourse which, in practice, viewed classical medical systems established in the Han Period (202 BCE–220 CE) expediently. With the added variable of known military drugs, we can further develop and clarify this hypothesis. Was Chinese practical medical discourse organized in any systematic way? Were there obvious patterns of consumption and practice which point to the influence of institutions, including the state? We can start to answer these questions by first trying to create a clear indicator of the Qing state’s capacity to modify medical discourse, starting at the published literate level. With the use of digital humanities tools and including many open-source databases, it is possible to see in clear terms the profile specific formulas had in the published medical records. The big pharmacies like the Tongrentang did not limit themselves to formulas they themselves allegedly invented, but rather they also co-opted previously existing formulas from a wide variety of origins, sometimes medieval or even ancient. Comparing the incidence of military formulas vs. Tongrentang (TRT) formulas across time, reaching back to the Song‑Jin‑Yuan Period (SJY, 960–1368), all relative to a control group as a baseline, can begin to illustrate the relative power of the state to enhance the profile of a specific formula.

Nearly all formulas distributed by the Qing or sold by the TRT which ultimately came from the medieval period begin at a consistently low textual incidence of 1‑2 texts per formula during the SJY and remain flat until the mid-Ming, when printing in all literary fields exploded. TRT formulas show a tendency to increase over time from the Ming (3.2 texts per formula) to the end of the Qing (10.1) – a factor of 3.2, noticeably higher than control at 2.7. The Qing government, when distributing medieval-era formulas, tended to select from high profile formulas, which increase from 7.45 in the early Ming to 35.25 by the late Qing texts – a factor of 4.3. But the Qing government often distributed TRT formulas to Qing soldiers. Such hybrid formulas skyrocketed in Qing texts, increasing by a factor of 7.85. It seems from this that Qing military distribution could have acted as a multiplier on TRT formulas, but this can only be seen most clearly when comparing these against military formulas totally unaffiliated with the TRT, where the factor actually increases – to 8.3. The Qing government was just as strong a multiplier as the most famous pharmacy in China, if not stronger.

The Unschuld manuscripts provide a glimpse into the efforts by physicians by the late Qing and early republican periods to determine the composition of such popular formulas, as the great pharmacies tended only to publish their applications, not their compositions. Formulas which came from the Qing’s Imperial Medical Academy Taiyiyuan 太醫院 were only recorded semi-officially in the private intra-government diaries and formularies of the Taiyiyuan and Imperial Pharmacy Yuyaofang 御藥房 physicians, which remained unpublished until modern times.

One group of military formulas stands out in terms of their relevance to the collection. They are those formulas which have an extremely limited or even negligible presence in the larger historical-literary record, yet were nonetheless distributed to Qing soldiers. It is in the Unschuld collection where some of the only historical records exist of what precisely these formulas (in total 14) consisted of and what they were used for by physicians. If Qing military distribution was a significant multiplier to a formula’s profile, then why did these formulas remain relatively obscure and appear only in practical literature? Analyzing the Unschuld manuscripts for patterns against the assumption that military distribution affected the formulas’ profiles offers clues. Despite all having virtually no presence in mainstream texts, medical or otherwise, some formulas can still be incredibly common across the practical domain. The drug Huanglianshangqingwan 黃連上清丸 “Pills with Rhizoma Coptidis to Clear the Upper Body” is an example of this, being invisible in medical and historical literature yet appearing in 52 separate manuscripts. At the other extreme is “Depression-Overcoming Harmony-Preserving Pill” Yuejubaohewan 越菊保和丸, which appears in only two.

Formulas were often obscure in literature but popular in manuscripts: cf. entry Huanglianshangqingwan 黃連上清丸 “Pills with Rhizoma Coptidis to Clear the Upper Body” from Wansangaodan 丸散膏丹 “Pills Powders Plasters and Elixers”, p. 54. – SBB PK: Slg. Unschuld 8002 (Retrieved from http://resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/SBB0000601F00000054)

Formulas were often obscure in literature but popular in manuscripts: cf. entry Huanglianshangqingwan 黃連上清丸 “Pills with Rhizoma Coptidis to Clear the Upper Body” from Wansangaodan 丸散膏丹 “Pills Powders Plasters and Elixirs”, p. 54. – SBB‑PK: Slg. Unschuld 8002 (Retrieved from http://resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/SBB0000601F00000054)

Despite such range, most of the formulas exhibit a profound degree of standardization throughout the collection in spite of the fact that the published record could not have provided a conduit of communication between the authors of the manuscripts. The fact that many such formulas appear on the TRT catalogue would in theory account for this. Huanglianshangqingwan is regularly appended with variants of the catalogue’s claim that it “treats overabundance/fullness of heat/fire in the triple burner” 治三焦實火. Fenqingwulinwan 分清五淋丸 “Clear-Turbid Five Stranguaries Pill” is a counterexample. Being absent from the TRT catalogue, practitioners would have had to find its application of “treating heat evil of the bladder and a swollen and painful penis” elsewhere, yet not only is its composition very consistent across documents, but this application does even repeat verbatim. Where did this formula come from, if not from medical literature? The most immediate possibility is: directly from the Qing court. Fenqingwulinwan appears in at least two modern reconstructed private intra-government diaries or formularies, where their applications to bladder diseases were the same, but their compositions were inconsistent. The ingredients from the Unschuld documents, though, draw from the common ingredients from the government formularies. There is a possibility that composition diffused from the imperial court.

A concordance between imperial court use and the practical literature of the Unschuld manuscripts would not be unexpected.  Using Chen Keji’s 陈可冀 systematic cataloguing of court medical cases in the Qing, one can find many obscure military formulas in use both at court in the Qing and in the manuscripts, such as Wujisanwan 五積散丸 (for cold affliction in the stomach), Jinyiqushuwan 金衣祛暑丸 (dispelling summerheat and unseasonal qi), Jiuqiniantongwan 九氣拈痛丸 (heart problems). The Qing court regularly used highly obscure formulas it shared with its soldiers, completely bypassing its own orthodox medical compilation, the “Golden Mirror of Medical Orthodoxy” 醫宗金鑒. Fully three-quarters of Qing military drugs do not appear in it, and half were absent from the Golden Mirror and yet were still used at court. The question remains, was it really the big pharmacies which were accounting for this concordance?

Only one obscure military formula is in the best position to approach this question. Xijiaoshangqingwan 犀角上清丸 “Rhinoceros Horn Upper-Body-Clearing Pill” did not appear on the TRT catalogue, was used at court (to treat heat related diseases), and also appears among the Unschuld manuscripts. The only records of its composition are four internal formularies, where the composition profile is inconsistent with only a few overlapping ingredients. Nonetheless, when appearing in the Unschuld documents its applications always include the treatment of heat, and virtually all of its ingredients named in the Unschuld collection can be found in at least one of the surviving internal formularies. The implication is a tempting hypothesis: The Qing imperial court dictated to the Qing and later practical medical domain, by bypassing medical literature, through subsidizing the pharmaceutical industry and dispersing specific formulas through military distribution. It was the state, not the pharmacies, which enhanced drug profiles. More research is needed of course.

A counterpoint to this hypothesis would be the interesting case of Pinganwan 平安丸 “Peace and Security Pill”, certainly the most enigmatic formula of the early modern period. A simple search through the catalogues of the First Historical Archives of China will reveal that this formula was nearly omnipresent in the Qing official sector from approximately the Yongzheng Period (1722–1735), being distributed to civil officials, generals, bannermen, regular soldiers. No other medical formula appears more commonly in military distribution records or even in civil or court records.

Pinganwan appears on the TRT catalogue as a formula for treating a number of ailments, including “the nine kinds of heart pain” jiuzhongxintong 九種心痛 and a variety of gastrointestinal pains and disorders. However, because of its ubiquity in Qing government, a variety of archival sources reveal it had a wide variety of incompatible applications. It was sent to the Manchu general Fukanggan (1644–1766) in the Miao campaigns of the 1790s to help cure summerheat stroke. In Nepal in 1793, a thousand soldiers received the drug to combat miasmas. In 1729, an official received it for exposure to cold pathogen – probably a febrile disease. In 1722 Emperor Yongzheng himself cut straight to the point and just called it a wonder drug. This gets even more complicated in a case from 1759, when in Xinjiang, a memorial from the Manchu general Zhao Hui thanked the emperor for a conferral containing pinganwan and xianglianwan, both explicitly labelled “such medicines which cure blade and firearm wounds”. I can find only very limited evidence within any state or private sources suggesting pinganwan was used to treat wounds, especially ones identified so specifically. The only relatively well-known text pinganwan appears in is Ma Wenzhi’s 1892 collection on external medicine, which omits its application.

Widely circulated Pinganwan was all but unknown in wider medicine: cf. entry Pinganwan 平安丸 “Peace and Security Pill”, p. 109. – SBB-PK: Slg. Unschuld 8222 (Retrieved from http://resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/SBB0000608E00000109)

Widely circulated Pinganwan was all but unknown in wider medicine: cf. entry Pinganwan 平安丸 “Peace and Security Pill”, p. 109. – SBB-PK: Slg. Unschuld 8222 (Retrieved from http://resolver.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/SBB0000608E00000109)

The mystery only compounds with the Unschuld collection, which has only a single entry of the drug, explicitly labeling it a “secret formula” mifang 秘方 and only very cursorily referencing aspects of its TRT description while giving only scant details of its composition. This is a departure from the normal experience when analyzing Qing military formulas in the Unschuld collection, which normally exhibit a reliable degree of standardization. However, in this case it is perhaps understandable as even Chen Keji could find no fewer than four separate recipes prevailing in the Qing period, each with highly inconsistent ingredients. The formula being in some sense secret cannot be an explanation for its inability to break out into larger discourse, as nothing could have been less of a secret in Qing government. At this point I speculate that the explanation lies at the top: Pinganwan was essentially a discretionary panacea, possibly influenced by the whims of imperial medical dilettantism, particularly of the emperor Yongzheng, who informally prescribed the drug to dozens of officials at a whim. Its resulting lack of standardization hampered any ability for it to circulate in the informally formatted system that was Qing practical medical discourse. This could explain how such a drug with such wide support from the state could have such a marginal impact outside of the state sector while allowing for the very real active correspondence between Qing medicine in government and in common medical practice. In the Qing, medical knowledge descended from state sectors via the military, but in many ways the halls of court, the offices of bureaucracy, and the garrisons of soldiers could each be their own medical worlds.

Vortrag im Rahmen von CrossAsia Talks am 20. 6. 2024

Research Grant in 2025 at Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

(See English version below)

 

die Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin lädt internationale Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftler ein, sich im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz für ein Forschungsstipendium im Jahr 2025 zu bewerben. Die Stipendien stehen für Forschungen in Berlin mit den umfangreichen Sammlungen der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, wie z.B. den Beständen der Ostasienabteilung und CrossAsia, sowie den Beständen anderer Institutionen der SPK zur Verfügung.

Die Bewerbungsfrist für ein Forschungsstipendium an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin endet wie jedes Jahr am 30. September.

Alle notwendigen Informationen für eine Bewerbung (Richtlinien, Voraussetzungen etc.) finden Sie hier: https://staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/extras/spezielle-interessen/stipendien

Wir freuen uns auf Ihre Bewerbung.


Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin invites international researchers to apply for a research grant in 2025 within the framework of the Grant Programme of the Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz. The scholarships are available for research in Berlin with the extensive collections of Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, such as the holdings of the East Asia Department and CrossAsia, as well as those of other SPK institutions.

The application deadline for a research grant at Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin ends on 30 September, as every year.

All necessary information for an application (guidelines, prerequisites etc.) can be found here:

https://staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/en/extras/spezielle-interessen/research-grants/

We are looking forward to your application.

Forbidden Books: The Censorship of Chinese Books under the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1770s–1780s)

Gastbeitrag von Dr. Julia C. Schneider

For sixty years, the Qianlong emperor (17111799, reign 17351796) ruled the Manchu Qing dynasty (16361912) and is thus one of the longest-ruling monarchs in East Asian history – not the longest ruling though. That was his grandfather, the Kangxi emperor (16541722, reign 16611722), who ruled for sixty-one years. In order not to overhaul him, the Qianlong emperor piously abdicated in his 61st year of rule. However, his de facto power continued until his death three years later.

The reign of the Qianlong emperor has been evaluated in starkly contrasting ways. On the one hand, it is the last of the three reigns that marked the golden period of Qing times, the High Qing, together with the reigns of his grandfather, mentioned above, and his father, the Yongzheng emperor (16781735, reign 17221735). It is seen as a heyday of literature and culture, of economy and trade, of wealth and luxury, of religion and scholarship. On the other hand, however, the Qianlong emperor has been described as a despot, an autocrat, even a control freak who tried to re-write Manchu history and create a pseudo-historical Manchu identity, who harshly censored Chinese scholarship and intellectual output, and who punished political enemies excessively. Probably, both is part of the truth.

The research project that brought me to the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin (State Library at Berlin) in June 2023 is the Qianlong emperor’s huge book censorship project, conducted in the 1770s and 1780s in the Chinese part of the Qing empire, so-called China proper. Nearly 3,000 books are said to have been censored. Even if this number is an exaggeration, it is true that nearly 3,000 books were handed in to be further inspected and examined by censors who then decided which of these books had to be burned completely or at least partly. In some particularly severe cases, printing blocks and even stone inscriptions were burned or destroyed.

Why would the Qianlong emperor destroy so many books, items that were usually hold in high esteem by him and particularly by the largest group among his educated and literate ruling elites, the Chinese literati? Why would an emperor who was of a non-Chinese identity that Chinese writers had commonly characterised as barbarian, uncouth, and uncivilised for a long time fulfil such descriptions by an act of book destruction, a “bibliocaust”? Well, one important reason for his destructiveness were exactly those derogatory descriptions of the Qianlong emperor’s Manchu forefathers, the Jurchen, in Chinese books. Such books had been published in high quantities during the Ming dynasty (13681644), until the Manchu Qing conquest of Beijing in 1644 and then of the rest of the Ming empire until the 1680s made such blunt insults impossible or at least very unwise. However, even after the conquest period such books that contain negative and insulting descriptions of the Jurchen, Manchus, and their close allies, the Mongols, could be found in nearly all private and public libraries owned by Chinese literati. This had angered already the Qianlong emperor’s predecessors, but it was he who decided to put an end to those kinds of texts once and for all, or so he thought.

Image 1 (see above) shows a map indicating what was considered problematic: The Manchus’ forefathers, the Jurchen, are described as one of the ‘barbarians of the four directions’ (si Yi 四夷, characters in blue box in upper right corner) and directly referred to as a barbarian people (Yiren 夷人, characters in blue box a little below the other box).

Image 2. “On the Map of the Barbarians in the Four Directions“. - In: Zhang Tianfu 張天復 (d. 1578), first pages of “Si Yi tushuo” 四夷圖說, in Guang huang yu kao 廣皇輿考 (Analysis of All Imperial Territories, 16th century), juan 18, p. 5a–b. Retrieved from https://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990077608260203941/catalog [18.01.2024] (n.p.: Zhang Rumao 張汝懋, Ming Tianqi bing yin 明天啓丙寅 [1626]), original held and scanned by Harvard University. - The book can also be found in the SBB in Siku jinhuishu congkan 四庫禁燬書叢刊 (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 2000), “Shibu” 史部, vol. 17, p. 352 (2000–2005), SBB PK: 5 B 33312 17

Image 2: “On the Map of the Four Barbarians, 16th century“. – In: Zhang Tianfu 張天復 (d. 1578), first pages of “Si Yi tushuo” 四夷圖說, in Guang huang yu kao 廣皇輿考, juan 18, p. 5ab. – Retrieved from https://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990077608260203941/catalog [18.01.2024] (n.p.: Zhang Rumao, 1626), original held by Harvard University. – The book can also be found in the SBB in Siku jinhuishu congkan 四庫禁燬書叢刊 (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 2000), “Shibu” 史部, vol. 17, p. 352, SBB‑PK: 5 B 33312‑17

Image 2 shows the beginning of a chapter on the Manchus’ forefathers, the Jurchen, that was submitted for further examination. One reason most probably was that they were described as one of the ‘four barbarians’ or ‘barbarians of the four directions’ (si Yi 四夷, characters in blue box on the fold of the pages) and directly referred to as barbarians (Yi 夷, character in blue box in the text), but also because the Jurchen were described in negative terms, for example, as being ‘fond of stealing’ (xi dao 喜盜, characters in red box).

It is uncertain when the Qianlong emperor had the idea of engaging in a censorship project of this size. Fact is that the censoring was accompanied by a huge book collection project, the Complete Library in Four Treasuries (Siku quanshu 四庫全書). When the first draft of this Complete Library in Four Treasuries was completed in 1781, it contained a collection of more than 3,500 Chinese books. It shows that the Qianlong emperor wanted to be seen as a particularly well-educated emperor who supported the arts and scholarship.

About two years after the collection project had commenced in 1772, the Qianlong emperor first mentioned in an edict that books containing defaming passages should be collected and sent to the capital Beijing when stumbled upon by the collectors during their search for particularly valuable books and manuscripts to be included in the Complete Library in Four Treasuries.  In Beijing, they should be further examined, and their fate should be decided upon. If the censors sentenced a book to be burned, this would be done in the capital, too. Unlike in Europe, where books that were considered treasonous (usually by one of the churches) were burned publicly like convicts, this was done secretly in the Qing empire.

My interest in the censorship project is to find out more about the reasons why the texts that were burned were considered derogatory. What made the Qianlong emperor or rather his censoring officials censor books? Can we still comprehend their reasons and motives? To be more concrete: how are Jurchen, Manchus, and Mongols described in these books? Fortunately (for me and other scholars), the Qing censors, like so many premodern or early modern censorship institutions, did not work as smoothly and completely as hoped. Many of the books on the censors’ and other officials’ lists are still extant, and I can thus use them to answer my questions.

Image 3: “Complete Report of Studying History, late 16th or early 17th century”. - In: Yu Shenxing 于愼行 (1545–1608), Du shi man lu 讀史漫錄, juan 13, p. 5b–7a. - Retrieved from https://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990077598390203941/catalog [18.01.2024] (n.p.: Yu Wei 于緯, Ming Wanli jia yi n 明萬曆甲寅 [1614]), original held and scanned by Harvard University. - A reprint of a different edition can be found in SBB in Siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書 (Jinan: Qi Lu shushe, 1996), “Shibu” 史部, “Shiping lei” 史評類, vol. 285, p. 654 (juan 13, p. 4a–5b), SBB PK: 5 B 33301 285

Image 3: “Complete Report of Studying History, late 16th or early 17th century”. – In: Yu Shenxing 于愼行 (15451608), Du shi man lu 讀史漫錄, juan 13, p. 5b7a. – Retrieved from https://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990077598390203941/catalog [18.01.2024] (n.p.: Yu Wei, 1614), original held by Harvard University. – A reprint of a different edition can be found in SBB in Siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書 (Jinan: Qi Lu shushe, 1996), “Shibu” 史部, “Shiping lei” 史評類, vol. 285, p. 654 (juan 13, p. 4a5b), SBB‑PK: 5 B 33301‑285

In image 3, the blue arrows point to two of a couple of passages that the official who sent the book to Beijing for further examination specifically referred to in his comment and pointed them out as particularly problematic. In this case, the reasons for censoring are somewhat unclear.

I came to the State Library at Berlin, however, not looking for manuscripts or ancient editions, but for rather recently published book collections which are crucial for my research and that in Europe, only the State Library at Berlin holds. The first one is the Collection of Forbidden and Burned Books of the Four Treasuries (Siku jinhuishu congkan 四庫禁燬書叢刊, 20002005). It is a reprint of 634 books that had been censored during the project – or at least mentioned on one of the related lists. Another one is Collection of Works by Ming Authors (Ming bieji congkan 明別集叢刊, 2016), an ongoing compilation project that includes several hundreds of Ming books, many of which appear on the censorship lists. Moreover, I found some additional titles in the Collection of Extant Works in the Complete Library in Four Treasuries (Siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書, 1997) and in other collections and compilations. After four weeks of reading dozens and dozens of reprints of Chinese books from Ming times, I finally left Berlin with a treasure trove of scans from 27 books from the Siku jinhuishu congkan, 18 from Ming bieji congkan, and 14 from Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, which will help me to further broaden my analysis and come to a better and more valid conclusion.

 

Frau Dr. Julia C. Schneider, University College Cork, war im Rahmen des Stipendienprogramms der Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz im Jahr 2023 als Stipendiatin an der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Forschungsprojekt: „Forbidden Books: Qing Censorship of Ming Discourses on Other Peoples“

Vortrag im Rahmen von CrossAsia Talks am 28. 6. 2023

Der Gastbeitrag von Dr. Julia C. Schneider „The Censorship of Chinese Books under the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1770s–1780s)“ erschien zuerst auf SBB aktuell – Das Blog-Netzwerk der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Beiträge für Forschung und Kultur.